Superscribing Sustainability: The Production of China’s Urban Waterscapes
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the linkages between urban waterscapes, nature aesthetics, and sustainability by delineating the re-emergence of shan-shui, translatable as ‘mountain-water,’ or ‘landscape,’ within contemporary urban China. I show how this aesthetic concept, originally emerging in third century Chinese landscape poetry, is used to reconfigure and reimagine sustainability and contemporary China’s urban landscapes. I draw on original mixed methods fieldwork, including interviews over a two-year period, digital archiving, historical texts and discourse analysis. Through these methods, I detail the emergence of shan-shui aesthetics then draw on the concept of superscription, the historical process of layering symbolic meanings, to understand the contemporary superscription of shan-shui with urban sustainability through the writings of prominent Chinese scientists and urban planning experts. Their productive work generated a new imaginary of teleological urban modernity that superscribes shan-shui with urban sustainability as the “shan-shui city.” Through two primary case studies, Tangshan Nanhu Eco-city and Meixi Lake, I show how the production of new sustainable urban waterscapes is linked with place making practices, territorial processes, and localized entrepreneurialism. Finally, I point to the limits of superscription, by highlighting the significant disconnect between the state framing of urban space and the lived experiences of urban residents, which I conceptualize as the osculation of the state. The paper, thus, intervenes in literatures regarding the historical transformations of cultural symbols, aesthetics, urban political ecology, and the political economy of place-making in China.
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RodenbikerJ. (2017). Superscribing Sustainability: The Production of China’s Urban Waterscapes. UPLanD - Journal of Urban Planning, Landscape & Environmental Design, 2(3), 71-86. https://doi.org/10.6093/2531-9906/5409
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References
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Duara, P. (2009). The Global and Regional in China’s Nation-Formation. Routledge.
Elvin, M. (2004). The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Farr, D. (2008). Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with Nature. John Wiley & Sons.
Foucault, M. (1984). Truth and Power. In Paul Rabinow (ed.) The Foucault Reader, New York, NY: Pantheon.
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Frodsham, J.D. (1967). The Murmuring Stream: The Life and Works of the Chinese Nature Poet, Hseieh Ling-yun (385-433), Duke of K’ang-Lo. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
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Henderson, J. (1984). The Development and Decline of Chinese Cosmology. New York, NY: Colombia University Press.
Hsing, Y.T. (2010). The Great Urban Transformation: Politics of Land and Property in China. Oxford University Press.
Hu, J. (2014). From Regional Planning to Site Design—The Application of the “Shan-shui City” Concept in Multi-scale Landscape Planning of New Cities in China. In The Ecological Design and Planning Reader (pp. 470-482). Island Press/Center for Resource Economics.
Hu, J. (2012). Shan-shui City: Exploring Sustainable City Development in China. Promotional Materials Publicshed by the Research Center for Landscape Architecture Planning, Beijing Tisinghua Tongheng Urban Planning and Design Institute.
Huang, H. (2010). Excursions, Estates and the Kingly Gaze: The Landscape Poetry of Xie Lingyun. Dissertation filed at the University of California, Berkeley.
Huang, J, & Chen C. (March, 18, 2011). Constructing the Characteristic Shan-shui City (Jianshe tese shanshui yuanlin chengshi). Southern Daily. Retrieved from http://epaper.nfdaily.cn/html/2011-03/18/content_6938230.htm
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Keil, R. (2003). Urban Political Ecology. Urban Geography. (24)8 723-738. doi: 10.2747/0272-3638.24.8.723
Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Li, Y. (2011). Zhenjiang Sets up a Green Habitat Forum: Boosting Transformation Towards a Shan-shui Garden City (Lüse renju luntan zhenjiang: zhutui shanshui huayuan chengshi zhuanxing). First Financial and Business Daily. Retrieved from http://www.yicai.com/news/2011/11/1207751.html
Li, Y. (2013). Guangxi’s Liuzhou Promotes a Cultural Development by Building a Culturally Strong City (Guangxi Liuzhou: tuidong wenhua fazhan, jianshe wenhua qiangshi). China Daily. Retreived from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/dfpd/gx/2013-01/21/content_16149179.htm
Lin, S. (2004). “A Good Place Need Not Be a Nowhere: The Garden and Utopian Thought in the Six Dynasties.” In Cai, Zongqi (Ed.) 2004 Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts, and the Universe in the Six Dynasties. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Lin, Y. (January 19, 2012) The State Council Approves Huizhou’s Urban Master Plan (Guowuyuan pizhun guangdong huizhou chengshi zongtiguihua). Southern Daily. Retreived from http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2012-01-19/075923824002.shtml
Lu, A. (2013). Introduction to Meixi Lake: Goals and Realities. Ecocity Notes. Retreived from http://ecocitynotes.com/author/alisonlu/
Ma, L. J. (1979). The Chinese approach to city planning: policy, administration, and action. Asian Survey, 838-855. doi: 10.2307/2643807
Ma, Y. (2013). Shan-shui City. MAD Architects Website. Retrieved from http://www.i-mad.com/#artexh_details?wtid=0&id=27
Oi, J.C. (1999). Rural China Takes off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Osvald, S. (1956). Chinese Painting: Leading Masters and Principles. New York, NY: Ronald Press.
Peet, R., & Watts, M. (eds.) (1996). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements. London; New York: Routledge.
Peet, R., & Watts, M. (eds.) (2004). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge.
Qiu, B. (2013). Speech Delivered at the China Development Forum Annual Conference (Zhongguo fazhan gocan luntan 2013 nian nianhui). Retrived from http://video.sina.com.cn/p/finance/20130325/122862210495.html
Ran, X. (March 28, 2013) Chongqing Builds a Beautiful Shan-shui City (Chongqing jianshe meili shanshuichengshi). China Environmental News. Retreived from http://www.cenews.com.cn/xwzx/zhxw/qt/201303/t20130327_738981.html
Ren, X. (2011). Building Globalization: Transnational Architecture Production in Urban China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ren, X. (2008). Architecture as branding: Mega project developments in Beijing. Built Environment, 34(4), 517-531.
Roy, A., & Ong, A. (Eds.). (2011). Worlding cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global (Vol. 42). John Wiley & Sons.
Rowe, P., & Kuan, S. (2002). Architectural Encounters With Essence and Form in Modern China. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rowe P., & Wu Y, (2002). Shan Shui City: Urban Development in Wenzhou, China. Harvard Design School.
Sit, V., (2010). Chinese City and Urbanism. Evolution and Development. Singapor: World Scientific Press.
Stein, G. (2012). Modern Chinese Real Estate Law: Property Development in an Evolving Legal System, Ashgate Publishers Ltd.
Soper, A.C. (1967). Textual Evidence for the Secular Arts in China in the Period of Liu Song through Sui (A.D. 420-618) Ascona, Aribus Asiae Publishers.
Sygeodwouw. E. (2003). Modernity and the prodcution of the spanish waterscape, 1890-1930. In Zimmerer, K. & Basset, T. (eds.). Political Ecology: An integrative approach to geography and envrionment-development studies, New York: Guilford press. 94-112
Visser, R. (2010). Cities Surround the Countryside: Urban Aesthetics in Post-Socialist China Duke University Press.
von Klemperer, J. et. al. (2012). Meixi Lake. Promotional Materials Published by Kohn Pederson Fox Associates.
Yip, W. L. (1976). Chinese Poetry: Major Modes and Genres. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Yip, W. L. (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres Duke University Press.
Wang, D. (2002) Chinese Shan-shui Culture and Urban Planning (Zhongguo shanshuiwenhua yu chengshi guihua), Nanijng: Southeast University Press.
Wang, R., & Ye, Y. (2004). Eco-city Development in China. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, 33(6), 341-342. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-33.6.341
Watson, B. (1971). Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. New York, NY: Colombia University Press.
White, A., Jonas, A. E., & Gibbs, D. (2004), The environment and the entrepreneurial city: Searching for the urban “sustainability fix” in Manchester and Leeds. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28(3), 549–569. doi: 10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00535.x
Wright, A. (1977). “The Cosmology of the Chinese City.” In Skinner, William. The City in Imperial China. Stanford University Press.
Wu, F., & Zhang, J. (2007). Planning the competitive city-region: The emergence of strategic development plan in China. Urban Affairs Review, 42(5), 714-740. doi: 10.1177/1078087406298119
Zeng, N, Shao, K, & Xiao S. (Novemeber 27, 2011). Constructing a Shan-shui City Emphasizes Tianrenheyi (Unity with nature) (Jianshe shanshui qishi qiangdiao tianrenheyi). Southern Daily. Retreived from http://epaper.nfdaily.cn/html/2011-11/27/content_7030371.htm
Zhang, H. (2001) Shan-shui Green Culture (Shanshui lüse wenhua). Changsha: Hunan University Press.
Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. New York, NY: Verso.
Agrawal, A. (2005). Environmentality: Technologies of Government and the Making of Subjects. New Ecologies for the Twenty-First Century. Durham: Duke University Press.
Bao, Shixing (1999). Distinguished Scientist Qian Xuesen’s Discourse on Urban Studies and the Shan-shui City (Jiechu kexuejia Qianxuesen guanyu chengshixuelu shanshuichengshi de lunshu). Beijing: China Architecture and Building Press (Zhongguo jianzhu gongye chubanshe).
Billig, M. (1995). Banal Nationalism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cai, Zongqi (Ed.) (2004). Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts, and the Universe in the Six Dynasties. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Chen Y. (2010) Shan-shui City: A Chinese Spatial Planning Tradition and its Implications on Urban Sustainability. In the 46th ISOCARP Congress.
Du Bei. (March 25, 2013). Chengde’s “Four Major Directives”, Constructing a Medium-scaled Shan-shui Garden City (Chengdeshi fengning “sidachuanbiao” jianshe shanshui yuanlin zhongdeng chengshi). Changchengwang. Retrieved from http://report.hebei.com.cn/system/2013/03/25/012656241.shtml
Duara, P. (2003). Sovereignty and Authenticity: Manchukuo and the East Asian Modern. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Duara, P. (2009). The Global and Regional in China’s Nation-Formation. Routledge.
Elvin, M. (2004). The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Farr, D. (2008). Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with Nature. John Wiley & Sons.
Foucault, M. (1984). Truth and Power. In Paul Rabinow (ed.) The Foucault Reader, New York, NY: Pantheon.
Foucault. M. (1991) Governmentality in G. Burchell, C. Gordon, and P. Miller (eds.) The Foucault Effect, London: Wheatsheaf Harvester.
Frodsham, J.D. (1967). The Murmuring Stream: The Life and Works of the Chinese Nature Poet, Hseieh Ling-yun (385-433), Duke of K’ang-Lo. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Fu, Liming. (2004). Researching the Shan-shui City (Shanshui chengshi yanjiu). Wuhan: Hubei Science and Technology Press (Hubei kexue jishu chubanshe).
Gandy, M. (2006) “Urban nature and the ecological imaginary,” In Heynen, N.C., Maria, K., and Erik Swyngedouw (Eds.). In the nature of cities: urban political ecology and the politics of urban metabolism. Vol. 3. Taylor & Francis.
Gandy, M. (2002). Concrete and Clay: Reworking Nature in New York City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
He, J., Bao, C. K., Shu, T. F., Yun, X. X., Jiang, D., & Brwon, L. (2011). Framework for integration of urban planning, strategic environmental assessment and ecological planning for urban sustainability within the context of China. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 31(6), 549-560. doi: 10/1016/j.eiar.2010.09.002
Henderson, J. (1984). The Development and Decline of Chinese Cosmology. New York, NY: Colombia University Press.
Hsing, Y.T. (2010). The Great Urban Transformation: Politics of Land and Property in China. Oxford University Press.
Hu, J. (2014). From Regional Planning to Site Design—The Application of the “Shan-shui City” Concept in Multi-scale Landscape Planning of New Cities in China. In The Ecological Design and Planning Reader (pp. 470-482). Island Press/Center for Resource Economics.
Hu, J. (2012). Shan-shui City: Exploring Sustainable City Development in China. Promotional Materials Publicshed by the Research Center for Landscape Architecture Planning, Beijing Tisinghua Tongheng Urban Planning and Design Institute.
Huang, H. (2010). Excursions, Estates and the Kingly Gaze: The Landscape Poetry of Xie Lingyun. Dissertation filed at the University of California, Berkeley.
Huang, J, & Chen C. (March, 18, 2011). Constructing the Characteristic Shan-shui City (Jianshe tese shanshui yuanlin chengshi). Southern Daily. Retrieved from http://epaper.nfdaily.cn/html/2011-03/18/content_6938230.htm
Huang, J, & Chen J. (March, 17, 2010). Lianzhou Shan-shui City’s Formative Stage of Construction (Lianzhou shanshui chengshi shexian chuxing). Southern Daily. Retrieved from http://epaper.nfdaily.cn/html/2010-03/17/content_6828320.htm
Jun, W. (April, 17, 2006). Wuhan Implements Four Major Engineering Construction Projects to build a Shan-shui Garden City (Wuhan sheshi sidagongcheng jianshe shanshui yuanlin chengshi). China People’s Daily. Retrieved from http://www.clr.cn/front/read/read.asp?ID=84184
Keil, R. (2003). Urban Political Ecology. Urban Geography. (24)8 723-738. doi: 10.2747/0272-3638.24.8.723
Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Li, Y. (2011). Zhenjiang Sets up a Green Habitat Forum: Boosting Transformation Towards a Shan-shui Garden City (Lüse renju luntan zhenjiang: zhutui shanshui huayuan chengshi zhuanxing). First Financial and Business Daily. Retrieved from http://www.yicai.com/news/2011/11/1207751.html
Li, Y. (2013). Guangxi’s Liuzhou Promotes a Cultural Development by Building a Culturally Strong City (Guangxi Liuzhou: tuidong wenhua fazhan, jianshe wenhua qiangshi). China Daily. Retreived from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/dfpd/gx/2013-01/21/content_16149179.htm
Lin, S. (2004). “A Good Place Need Not Be a Nowhere: The Garden and Utopian Thought in the Six Dynasties.” In Cai, Zongqi (Ed.) 2004 Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts, and the Universe in the Six Dynasties. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Lin, Y. (January 19, 2012) The State Council Approves Huizhou’s Urban Master Plan (Guowuyuan pizhun guangdong huizhou chengshi zongtiguihua). Southern Daily. Retreived from http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2012-01-19/075923824002.shtml
Lu, A. (2013). Introduction to Meixi Lake: Goals and Realities. Ecocity Notes. Retreived from http://ecocitynotes.com/author/alisonlu/
Ma, L. J. (1979). The Chinese approach to city planning: policy, administration, and action. Asian Survey, 838-855. doi: 10.2307/2643807
Ma, Y. (2013). Shan-shui City. MAD Architects Website. Retrieved from http://www.i-mad.com/#artexh_details?wtid=0&id=27
Oi, J.C. (1999). Rural China Takes off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Osvald, S. (1956). Chinese Painting: Leading Masters and Principles. New York, NY: Ronald Press.
Peet, R., & Watts, M. (eds.) (1996). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements. London; New York: Routledge.
Peet, R., & Watts, M. (eds.) (2004). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge.
Qiu, B. (2013). Speech Delivered at the China Development Forum Annual Conference (Zhongguo fazhan gocan luntan 2013 nian nianhui). Retrived from http://video.sina.com.cn/p/finance/20130325/122862210495.html
Ran, X. (March 28, 2013) Chongqing Builds a Beautiful Shan-shui City (Chongqing jianshe meili shanshuichengshi). China Environmental News. Retreived from http://www.cenews.com.cn/xwzx/zhxw/qt/201303/t20130327_738981.html
Ren, X. (2011). Building Globalization: Transnational Architecture Production in Urban China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ren, X. (2008). Architecture as branding: Mega project developments in Beijing. Built Environment, 34(4), 517-531.
Roy, A., & Ong, A. (Eds.). (2011). Worlding cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global (Vol. 42). John Wiley & Sons.
Rowe, P., & Kuan, S. (2002). Architectural Encounters With Essence and Form in Modern China. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rowe P., & Wu Y, (2002). Shan Shui City: Urban Development in Wenzhou, China. Harvard Design School.
Sit, V., (2010). Chinese City and Urbanism. Evolution and Development. Singapor: World Scientific Press.
Stein, G. (2012). Modern Chinese Real Estate Law: Property Development in an Evolving Legal System, Ashgate Publishers Ltd.
Soper, A.C. (1967). Textual Evidence for the Secular Arts in China in the Period of Liu Song through Sui (A.D. 420-618) Ascona, Aribus Asiae Publishers.
Sygeodwouw. E. (2003). Modernity and the prodcution of the spanish waterscape, 1890-1930. In Zimmerer, K. & Basset, T. (eds.). Political Ecology: An integrative approach to geography and envrionment-development studies, New York: Guilford press. 94-112
Visser, R. (2010). Cities Surround the Countryside: Urban Aesthetics in Post-Socialist China Duke University Press.
von Klemperer, J. et. al. (2012). Meixi Lake. Promotional Materials Published by Kohn Pederson Fox Associates.
Yip, W. L. (1976). Chinese Poetry: Major Modes and Genres. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Yip, W. L. (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres Duke University Press.
Wang, D. (2002) Chinese Shan-shui Culture and Urban Planning (Zhongguo shanshuiwenhua yu chengshi guihua), Nanijng: Southeast University Press.
Wang, R., & Ye, Y. (2004). Eco-city Development in China. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment, 33(6), 341-342. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-33.6.341
Watson, B. (1971). Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. New York, NY: Colombia University Press.
White, A., Jonas, A. E., & Gibbs, D. (2004), The environment and the entrepreneurial city: Searching for the urban “sustainability fix” in Manchester and Leeds. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28(3), 549–569. doi: 10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00535.x
Wright, A. (1977). “The Cosmology of the Chinese City.” In Skinner, William. The City in Imperial China. Stanford University Press.
Wu, F., & Zhang, J. (2007). Planning the competitive city-region: The emergence of strategic development plan in China. Urban Affairs Review, 42(5), 714-740. doi: 10.1177/1078087406298119
Zeng, N, Shao, K, & Xiao S. (Novemeber 27, 2011). Constructing a Shan-shui City Emphasizes Tianrenheyi (Unity with nature) (Jianshe shanshui qishi qiangdiao tianrenheyi). Southern Daily. Retreived from http://epaper.nfdaily.cn/html/2011-11/27/content_7030371.htm
Zhang, H. (2001) Shan-shui Green Culture (Shanshui lüse wenhua). Changsha: Hunan University Press.